Building Materials Assessment from Amenemhat III’s Pyramid at Dahshour (Giza, Egypt)
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy, Ángel Sánchez-Bellón, Salvador Domínguez-Bella & Eduardo Molina-Piernas
International Journal of Architectural Heritage (2025), 1–28.
Abstract
The Pyramid of Amenemhat III, also known as the Black Pyramid, is one of the earliest pyramids constructed primarily from mudbricks, and later encased with limestone. Built during Egypt’s Middle Kingdom (c. 1860–1814 BCE), it reflects an important transition in ancient Egyptian architecture, balancing the grandeur of traditional pyramid design with the economical use of mudbrick as a core material.
This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the pyramid’s construction techniques, material composition and preservation challenges, integrating field observations with advanced analytical methods, including X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, and petrographic microscopy. The research highlights a sophisticated material strategy to select locally sourced materials, using a core of phyllosilicate-rich mudbrick enhanced with organic additives for flexibility and cohesion, and calcite-dominated limestone casing chosen for its protective and aesthetic qualities. However, the pyramid has largely eroded over time and faces significant conservation challenges. Swelling clays, salt crystallization, and thermal stress have contributed to the degradation of the mudbrick core, while environmental and anthropogenic factors have accelerated the erosion of the limestone casing. The results emphasize the ingenuity of Middle Kingdom architects in resource efficiency and structural innovation, while also identifying vulnerabilities in the used materials. Finally, this study not only deepens the understanding of ancient Egyptian construction practices but also provides a foundation for sustainable conservation approaches to safeguard this monumental heritage.
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Structural pathology and vulnerability assessment of monolithic stone columns at El Ashmonein Site, Egypt
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy
npj Heritage Science (2025).
Abstract
This study assesses the structural vulnerability of ancient monolithic granite columns at the El-Ashmonein site in Minia, Egypt, focusing on seismic and flood risks. Using Finite Element Modeling (FEM), modal analysis, and in situ surveys, both sound and decayed columns were analyzed. Seismic simulations showed top displacements of 2.44 cm in sound columns and 3.34 cm in decayed ones, a 37% increase due to degradation. Modal analysis revealed a longer fundamental period (0.58 s) and lower frequency (1.73 Hz) in decayed columns, raising resonance risk. Flood simulations with water depths of 1–3 m showed maximum lateral deformations of up to 20.7 cm in decayed columns, exceeding their sliding resistance at 3 m depth. These results highlighted the heightened vulnerability of deteriorated columns and emphasize the need for integrated conservation strategies. A simulation-based model for interventive conservation was proposed to enhance structural resilience against seismic and flood hazards.
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Landscape Change Detection and its impact on Ancient Egyptian UNESCO built heritage in Abu Ghurab, Abusir, and Saqqara World Heritage Sites, Badrashin, Giza, Egypt
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy
Heritage 9(1), 5 (2025).
Abstract
Urban expansion causes increasing risks to archaeological heritage and yet few studies have systematically analyzed multi-site urban change using consistent temporal datasets and standardized methods. In this sense, this study addresses this gap by applying a multi-temporal urban change detection framework to the Memphis region, focusing on the Abu Gurab, Abusir and Saqqara sites. To conduct this research, high-resolution satellite imagery from 2004, 2008 and 2025 was processed using harmonized geospatial classification and overlay techniques to quantify built-up area growth and identify zones where modern development threatens key monuments to include the Sun Temples of Userkaf and Nyuserre, and the pyramids of Sahure, Neferirkare and Neferefre. A GIS- and remote sensing-based workflow, combining supervised classification, post-classification comparison and buffer zone analysis, enabled precise monitoring of urban encroachment. Additionally, high-resolution imagery and in situ inspections supported detailed decay mapping of select monuments, using grayscale normalization and false-color analysis to quantify surface deterioration objectively. This approach highlights the progressive impact of urbanization on archaeological structures and provides actionable data for archaeological sites management. Finally, the results contribute to heritage risk assessment, support evidence-based conservation planning, and inform urban planning strategies in line with Sustainable Development Goal 11.4 and the UNESCO Historic Urban Landscape Recommendation (HULR).
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Integrated Documentation and Non-Destructive Surface Characterization of Ancient Egyptian Sandstone Blocks at the Karnak Temples (Luxor, Egypt)
peopleAuthors: Abdelrhman Fahmy, Salvador Domínguez-Bella, Ana Durante-Macías, Fabiola Martínez-Viñas, and Eduardo Molina-Piernas
Abstract
The Karnak Temples are considered one of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt, dating from the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1700 BC) with continuous expansion until the Ptolemaic period (305-30 BC). As the second most visited archaeological site in Egypt, declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site, after the Pyramids of Giza, Karnak faces severe deterioration processes due to prolonged exposure to environmental impacts, mechanical damage, and historical interventions. This study employs a multidisciplinary approach that integrates non-destructive testing (NDT) methods to assess the physico-mechanical state and degradation mechanisms of sandstone blocks scattered throughout the site.
Advanced documentation techniques, such as Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI), photogrammetry, and Infrared Thermography (IRT), were used to analyze surface morphology, thermal stress effects, and weathering patterns. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) tests provided internal structural assessments, while spectral and gloss analysis quantified chromatic alterations and surface roughness.
Additionally, the Karsten tube test determined the water absorption behavior of the sandstone, highlighting variations in porosity and susceptibility to salt crystallization. In this regard, results indicate that climatic factors such as extreme temperature fluctuations, wind erosion, and groundwater infiltration contributed to sandstone deterioration.
Thermal cycles cause microcracks and granular disintegration, while high capillary water absorption accelerates chemical weathering processes. UPV analyses showed substantial internal decomposition, with low-velocity zones correlated with fractures and differential loss of cementation. Finally, an interventional conservation plan was proposed.
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Geo-Environmental Research of the Sahure Pyramid, Abusir Archaeological Site, Giza, Egypt
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy, Eduardo Molina-Piernas, Salvador Domínguez-Bella, Javier Martínez-López & Fatma Helmi
Abstract
Abusir is the name of an elaborate burial zone in Egypt, dotted with 19 pyramids and other temples, extending on the western side of the Nile from the south of the Giza plateau to the northern edge of Saqqara. It appears to have been created as the resting place for pharaohs dated between 2494 and 2345 BC. The name Abusir, originally pronounced as Busiri, means “Temple of Osiris”.
Over time, the name has become so popular that more than 60 villages now bear this name, but only one is the archaeological site. This article focused on one of the most important pyramids in the Abusir archaeological area, the Sahure pyramid, as it is one of Egypt’s little-known but severely damaged treasures.
Field and laboratory studies have been conducted to investigate and understand the durability problems and construction materials of this pyramid, leading to results that confirmed the impact of geo-environmental conditions on the architectural, structural, and engineering stability of the pyramid.
Furthermore, results showed that the mineralogical content in the construction materials was an intrinsic problem due to the presence of expansive (swelling) clays, which are considered responsible for the decomposition and damage of the pyramid. To this are added external factors such as the effect of temperature variations, rain, pollutants, wind, and earthquakes, and their interactions with the intrinsic defects of the construction material. Finally, this article revealed a new discovery of basaltic mortar as the first attempt at green concrete manufacturing in the Ancient Egyptian Kingdom, Fifth Dynasty.
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Impact of Saline Weathering on the Nero/Ramesses II Temple at the El-Ashmonein Archaeological Site (Hermopolis Magna), Egypt
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy, Eduardo Molina-Piernas, Javier Martínez-López & Salvador Domínguez-Bella
Abstract
The Nero Temple at the El-Ashmonein archaeological site, in Minya (Central Egypt), is considered one of the most important Nero temples. This temple dates from 1520 BC – 1075 BC in the New Kingdom and was reused in the era of Nero (the Fifth Emperor of Rome). The temple’s construction materials are severely deteriorated due to surrounding environmental impacts, especially contaminated water sources. The main objective of this study is to identify the construction materials of the Nero Temple and their deterioration byproducts.
To achieve this, X-ray diffraction, X-ray microfluorescence spectrometry, and portable Raman spectroscopy were used to identify the compositions and alteration/degradation compounds (mainly saline efflorescences and crusts) of the construction materials, such as the limestone walls and structural mortars of the temple.
Additionally, a polarizing microscope was used to identify minerals within the construction materials and reveal mineral alteration due to deterioration. Digital microscopy and scanning electron microscopy with EDS were employed to detect the morphological characteristics of deteriorated materials.
Finally, results showed that the main deterioration factor is the attack of salts (chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, and bicarbonates) on all architectural and structural elements of the temple, which have been transported to the construction materials from various contaminated water sources (canal, wastewater, and agricultural water).
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Impact of the Coastal Environment on the Construction Materials of the Anfushi Necropolis (Pharos Island) in Alexandria, Egypt
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy, Eduardo Molina-Piernas, Javier Martínez-López, Philip Machev & Salvador Domínguez-Bella
Abstract
The only example and reference of Ptolemaic Alexandrian tombs, with clear integrations of Egyptian-style scenes and decorations, is considered an endangered archaeological site due to different coastal environmental risks in Alexandria and the absence of maintenance. The Anfushi Necropolis is located near the western harbor (Pharos Island) and dates from the 2nd century BC. Sea level rise, earthquakes, floods, storms, temperature variations, precipitation, and wind are the factors that have the greatest effect on the destruction and deterioration of the Anfushi Necropolis construction materials.
The main objectives of this work were to characterize the construction materials of this necropolis and evaluate their durability problems and risks with respect to the coastal environment. Additionally, vector mapping of its architectural and structural elements was applied for documentation and recording purposes of the necropolis.
To achieve these objectives, field work (recording and photographs), office work (engineering drawing and mapping), and laboratory work (X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, binocular microscopy, polarized microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy) were carried out. Results confirmed the probabilistic risk of sea level rise and its impact on the submersion of the Anfushi Necropolis.
Structural deficiencies of the tombs were caused by the effect of seismic tremors along with anthropogenic factors. Furthermore, chemical and microscopic investigations showed that saline weathering (halite and gypsum) induced deterioration of the construction materials.
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Multi-Analytical Diagnostic Approaches for the Assessment of Materials and Deterioration of Archaeological Sandstone from the Osiris Temple (El Abaton) on Bigeh Island, Philae (Aswan, Egypt)
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy, Javier Martínez-López, Ángel Sánchez-Bellón, Salvador Domínguez-Bella & Eduardo Molina-Piernas
Abstract
The ancient Osiris Temple at Philae/Aswan, also known as Abaton, was considered one of the most sacred and mysterious temples in Egypt. In 1960, UNESCO rescued the Philae temples because the rising water level after the construction of the Old and New Aswan Dams caused all temples to be submerged under water. A rescue campaign was carried out to protect all Aswan temples. Unfortunately, the Osiris Temple was not rescued and was forgotten in its original location on Bigeh Island.
Currently, this temple is subject to the effects of Nile water and is partially submerged under water due to changes in the Nile water level. This study aims to unravel and evaluate the conservation state of the temple’s sandstone material through multi-analytical and examination techniques (X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, Raman spectroscopy, polarization microscopy, binocular microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy). Additionally, in situ records were obtained and degradation maps were prepared to establish the damage and deterioration patterns of the Osiris Temple construction material.
Results showed that blackening, soiling, and disintegration are the dominant deterioration patterns in the temple’s construction material. Furthermore, Nile water, as an extrinsic factor, severely affected the temple’s conservation state due to continuous exposure to water force. The mineralogical composition of the sandstone played an important role in its degradation as an intrinsic deterioration factor mainly due to the dispersion of the clay matrix and/or dissolution of carbonates, quartz hydrolysis, and feldspar alteration.
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Sand Dune Movement and Flood Risk Analysis for the Meroe Pyramids, Al Bagrawiya Archaeological Site, Sudan
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy, Salvador Domínguez-Bella, Javier Martínez-López & Eduardo Molina-Piernas
Abstract
The Meroe pyramids are a significant archaeological location at the Al Bagrawiya archaeological site (Sudan) with hundreds of pyramids dating from the Kingdom of Kush (1070 BC – 550 AD). In this area, winds, torrential rains, and flood events are the main geohazards that require assessments and solutions, as the pyramids are subject to sand dune accumulation around them and flood risk, affecting their durability.
This research aims to evaluate the impacts of sand dunes on the stability of pyramid structures, in addition to assessing flood risk using satellite image observations, and damage and deterioration assessments of the pyramids’ construction materials were carried out through digital mapping.
Results from satellite image analysis and monitoring showed that sand dunes, along with torrential rains and floods, are the main deterioration factors, causing collapse, disintegration, crumbling, alveolarization, material loss, and cracking of sandstone ashlars, with an increase in deterioration detected, even considering only the last three decades.
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Monodisperse Multifunctional SiO2–TiO2 ‘Core-Shell’ Nanostructure and TEOS in the Consolidation of Archaeological Lime Mortar Surfaces
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy, Anna Gołąbiewska, Wiktoria Wojnicz, Alicja Stanisławska, Jakub Kowalski, Justyna Łuczak, Adriana Zaleska-Medynska, Salvador Domínguez-Bella, Javier Martínez-López & Eduardo Molina-Piernas
Abstract
Traditional archaeological lime mortars are susceptible to various environmental conditions such as water impact (rain, humidity, groundwater, etc.), temperature variations, wind, and/or pollution. Consequently, this research aims to provide a new multifunctional nanoscale coating evaluated for the protection of archaeological lime mortars.
To this end, the study combined physicochemical and mechanical characterizations in the evaluation of the performance of 3%, 5%, and 7% of the synthesized SiO2–TiO2 ‘core-shell’ nanostructure and TEOS as consolidants on experimental lime mortar surfaces. A series of techniques and tests were carried out for evaluation. For analysis, X-ray diffraction and UV–Vis along with scanning electron microscopy were used to identify the microstructure.
Additionally, wettability, colorimetric, self-cleaning, petrophysical, nanoindentation, and uniaxial compression resistance tests were performed to select the most durable consolidant among 3%, 5%, and 7% SiO2–TiO2/TEOS. Durability evaluations were carried out through salt weathering, thermal aging, and UV tests. Results showed that 3% and 5% SiO2–TiO2/TEOS improved the physical and mechanical properties of lime mortars. On the other hand, 7% SiO2–TiO2/TEOS demonstrated insufficient efficacy in improving lime mortar surfaces due to the high amount of TiO2 and its aggregation behavior.
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Conservation Assessment of Stone Blocks at the Northeast Corner of the Karnak Temples in Luxor, Egypt
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy, Eduardo Molina-Piernas & Salvador Domínguez-Bella
Mechanical Damage
Seismic activities have induced out-of-plane displacements, fractures, and detachments in stone blocks
Environmental Factors
Floods have aggravated structural instability through heaving and prolonged water exposure
Soil Issues
Soil liquefaction and fluctuating groundwater levels have exacerbated misalignment and burial of stone blocks
Conservation Needs
A multifaceted and urgent conservation strategy is required, including elevated platforms, non-invasive cleaning, and water management
summarizeAbstract
The Karnak Temples complex, a monumental site dating from approximately 1970 BC, faces significant preservation challenges due to a confluence of mechanical, environmental, and anthropogenic factors affecting its stone blocks.
This study provides a comprehensive assessment of the deterioration affecting the northeast corner of the complex, revealing that primary forms of damage include splitting cracks and fracturing. Thermal stress and wind erosion have caused microstructural decomposition and surface degradation, and contaminated water sources have led to salt weathering and chemical alterations. Multitemporal satellite images have revealed the influence of vegetation, particularly invasive plant species, on physical and biochemical stone damage.
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Ancient Egyptian Granite Graffiti from Bigeh Island, Philae Archaeological Site (Aswan, Egypt): An Archaeometric and Deterioration Assessment for Conservation
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy, Salvador Domínguez-Bella & Eduardo Molina-Piernas
Hydrological Factors
Prolonged exposure to fluctuating water levels and recurrent wetting-drying cycles accelerates granular disintegration, exfoliation, and surface loss.
Salt Crystallization
Salt crystallization, particularly halite, contributes to granite weathering, while interactions with sulfates promote chemical weathering.
Biofilm Colonization
Biofilm colonization, facilitated by high moisture retention, further exacerbates surface deterioration by producing organic acids that weaken the mineral matrix.
Mineralogical Transformations
Granite consists mainly of quartz, feldspars, and biotite, with notable alterations including kaolinization and illitization, and dissolution of feldspar minerals and biotite oxidation.
Abstract
This study investigates the deterioration of granite graffiti at the Philae Archaeological Site, on Bigeh Island (Aswan, Egypt), attributed to Khaemwaset (1281-1225 BC, Nineteenth Dynasty). These graffiti, despite being carved in the durable Aswan granite, are experiencing progressive degradation due to environmental and hydrological factors. This research aims to analyze the mineralogical and chemical transformations affecting the graffiti to provide a comparative assessment of submerged and non-submerged granite surfaces.
A multi-analytical approach was employed, combining petrographic examination, X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) to identify compositional changes and deterioration patterns. Results confirm the need for conservation interventions to mitigate ongoing damage.
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Assessment of the Impact of Nile Water Level Fluctuations on the Structural Stability of the Philae Temples in Aswan, Egypt
Authors: Abdelrhman Fahmy, Laura Basell, Salvador Domínguez-Bella & Eduardo Molina-Piernas
Abstract
The ancient Egyptian temples at the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Philae in Aswan face conservation challenges due to water level fluctuations, which threaten the resistance of their construction materials. Following a summarized review of hydrological changes in the Nile’s natural responses caused by the construction of the Aswan Dam, our research employs a novel approach, combining remote sensing data analysis, literature review, fieldwork, and multiple high-specification material analyses, to assess the impact of these changes on the Philae temples.
New data enables identification of the highest risk areas and informs long-term monitoring and conservation of Philae. Our approach enhances understanding of the causes and effects of construction material deterioration and underscores the urgent need for conservation strategies to mitigate ongoing water-induced deterioration.
The research highlights the impact of human-induced hydrological changes, offering a case study that informs future climate change effects. It is clear that difficult decisions will be required for the long-term heritage conservation of the Philae temples in the face of modern infrastructural developments and climate change, and that cultural heritage management guidelines are urgently needed before and after dam construction. The problems identified are not exclusive to the Philae Temples, so the results and recommendations are relevant to other World Heritage sites currently facing similar environmental and conservation challenges.
Key Conclusions
Water level fluctuations threaten the resistance of construction materials at the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Philae
A novel approach combines remote sensing, literature review, fieldwork, and material analysis
Research identifies the highest risk areas and informs long-term monitoring and conservation
Human-induced hydrological changes offer a case study for future climate change effects
Difficult decisions are required for long-term heritage conservation in the face of modern developments
Dr. Abdelrhman Fahmy Archaeology 